Integrated circuits ('chips') and holders

NE555 timer IC, at least 3 (10 if you plan to solder projects). It is not worth ordering other ICs at this stage unless you know they are needed for some of the projects you wish to try.

If you are planning to solder circuits on stripboard or PCB you will also need 8-pin, 14-pin and 16-pin DIL sockets (IC holders), at least 10 of each.


More 555IC

Crocodile clips

Buy at least one standard crocodile clip to use as a heat sink when soldering. Miniature red and black crocodile clips (buy about 10 of each) are useful for making your own test leads using 7/0.2mm stranded wire.

Switches

Switches are not essential for breadboard circuits because you can make or break links with pieces of wire. The on/off switch from soldered projects can also be omitted if you are willing to unclip the battery instead.

If you wish to buy a few switches the most useful types are push-to-make and miniature SPDT toggle switches, 3 of each. 

   






 

  



 





All type off Switch

Stripboard

Buy a large sheet (or two) and cut it up as required. You can cut it neatly to size using a junior hacksaw, cutting along the lines of holes is easiest. For quickness you can break it over the edge of a workbench along the lines of holes - take care though because this needs a fairly large force and the edges will be rough. You may need to use a large pair of pliers to nibble away any jagged parts.

Avoid handling stripboard that you are not planning to use immediately because sweat from your hands will corrode the copper tracks and this will make soldering difficult unless you clean the board first.

piezo transducer

Miniature piezo transducer

Buy these if you can afford them, or wait until they are needed for a project.

• A light dependent resistor (LDR), ORP12 or NORPS12.
• A thermistor, miniature disc type, NTC about 5k@25°C.
• A piezo transducer with flying leads.
• A buzzer or bleeper.
• A miniature loudspeaker 8.

Breadboard

A small breadboard (such as the Protobloc 1 shown in the picture) is suitable for simple circuits with up to two ICs, but if you intend to build more complex circuits such as counters it is best to buy a larger breadboard (such as the Protobloc 2).

Breadboards do not require soldering so the components used on them can be re-used many times. They are ideal for testing your own circuit designs and trying out ideas such as adapting a published project. 

Storage systems for components

Snap-top plastic bags

Drawer cabinet

You can store all your components in a single container, such as a plastic food box, but as you accumulate more items it will become increasingly difficult to find the smaller components! A cheap solution is to organise the parts into small snap-top plastic bags which can be labelled, in fact you may find that some components are supplied like this.

Probably the best storage system is a cabinet of plastic drawers. These can be expensive, but you do not need many drawers because there is no need to have a drawer for every single component value. Many parts can be grouped together, such as decades of resistor values. For example you could organise a 15-drawer cabinet like this:

1. Resistors 10+ (third band black) only a few, but they tend to be large
2. Resistors 100+ (third band brown)
3. Resistors 1k+ (third band red)
4. Resistors 10k+ (third band orange)
5. Resistors 100k+ (third band yellow)
6. Resistors 1M+ (third band green) and 
7. 10M (third band blue)
8. Presets, also variable resistors if they will fit in the drawer
9. Capacitors low values, less than 1µF
10. Capacitors electrolytic 1µF+
11. Diodes 
12. Transistors
13. LEDs
14. Lamps (also LED clips and lampholders)
15. ICs (chips) and their holders (DIL sockets)
16. Switches 
17. Relays
18. Connectors (crocodile clips, plugs and sockets)
19. Other components (battery clips, piezo transducers, LDRs, thermistors)

Transistors

   

      

      

Function

Transistors amplify current, for example they can be used to amplify the small output current from a logic IC so that it can operate a lamp, relay or other high current device. In many circuits a resistor is used to convert the changing current to a changing voltage, so the transistor is being used to amplify voltage.

A transistor may be used as a switch (either fully on with maximum current, or fully off with no current) and as an amplifier (always partly on).

The amount of current amplification is called the current gain, symbol h_FE.
For further information please see the Transistor Circuits page. 

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Types of transistor

Transistor circuit symbols

There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP, with different circuit symbols. The letters refer to the layers of semiconductor material used to make the transistor. Most transistors used today are NPN because this is the easiest type to make from silicon. If you are new to electronics it is best to start by learning how to use NPN transistors.

The leads are labelled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E).
These terms refer to the internal operation of a transistor but they are not much help in understanding how a transistor is used, so just treat them as labels!

A Darlington pair is two transistors connected together to give a very high current gain.

In addition to standard (bipolar junction) transistors, there are field-effect transistors which are usually referred to as FETs. They have different circuit symbols and properties and they are not (yet) covered by this page.

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Transistor leads for some common case styles.

Connecting

Transistors have three leads which must be connected the correct way round. Please take care with this because a wrongly connected transistor may be damaged instantly when you switch on.

If you are lucky the orientation of the transistor will be clear from the PCB or stripboard layout diagram, otherwise you will need to refer to a supplier's catalogue or website to identify the leads.

The drawings on the right show the leads for some of the most common case styles.

Please note that transistor lead diagrams show the view from below with the leads towards you. This is the opposite of IC (chip) pin diagrams which show the view from above.

Please see below for a table showing the case styles of some common transistors. 

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Crocodile clip

Soldering

Transistors can be damaged by heat when soldering so if you are not an expert it is wise to use a heat sink clipped to the lead between the joint and the transistor body. A standard crocodile clip can be used as a heat sink.

Do not confuse this temporary heat sink with the permanent heat sink (described below) which may be required for a power transistor to prevent it overheating during operation. 

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Testing a transistor

Transistors can be damaged by heat when soldering or by misuse in a circuit. If you suspect that a transistor may be damaged there are two easy ways to test it:

Testing an NPN transistor

1. Testing with a multimeter

Use a multimeter or a simple tester (battery, resistor and LED) to check each pair of leads for conduction. Set a digital multimeter to diode test and an analogue multimeter to a low resistance range.

Test each pair of leads both ways (six tests in total):

• The base-emitter (BE) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one way only.
• The base-collector (BC) junction should behave like a diode and conduct one way only.
• The collector-emitter (CE) should not conduct either way.

The diagram shows how the junctions behave in an NPN transistor. The diodes are reversed in a PNP transistor but the same test procedure can be used.

A simple switching circuit to test an NPN transistor

2. Testing in a simple switching circuit

Connect the transistor into the circuit shown on the right which uses the transistor as a switch. The supply voltage is not critical, anything between 5 and 12V is suitable. This circuit can be quickly built on breadboard

for example. Take care to include the 10k resistor in the base connection or you will destroy the transistor as you test it!

If the transistor is OK the LED should light when the switch is pressed and not light when the switch is released.

To test a PNP transistor use the same circuit but reverse the LED and the supply voltage.

Some multimeters have a 'transistor test' function which provides a known base current and measures the collector current so as to display the transistor's DC current gain h_FE. 

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Transistor codes

There are three main series of transistor codes used in the UK:

• Codes beginning with B (or A), for example BC108, BC478
  The first letter B is for silicon, A is for germanium (rarely used now). The second letter indicates the type; for example C means low power audio frequency; D means high power audio frequency; F means low power high frequency. The rest of the code identifies the particular transistor. There is no obvious logic to the numbering system. Sometimes a letter is added to the end (eg BC108C) to identify a special version of the main type, for example a higher current gain or a different case style. If a project specifies a higher gain version (BC108C) it must be used, but if the general code is given (BC108) any transistor with that code is suitable.
• Codes beginning with TIP, for example TIP31A
  TIP refers to the manufacturer: Texas Instruments Power transistor. The letter at the end identifies versions with different voltage ratings.
• Codes beginning with 2N, for example 2N3053
  The initial '2N' identifies the part as a transistor and the rest of the code identifies the particular transistor. There is no obvious logic to the numbering system.

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Choosing a transistor

Most projects will specify a particular transistor, but if necessary you can usually substitute an equivalent transistor from the wide range available. The most important properties to look for are the maximum collector current IC and the current gain hFE. To make selection easier most suppliers group their transistors in categories determined either by their typical use or maximum power rating.

To make a final choice you will need to consult the tables of technical data which are normally provided in catalogues. They contain a great deal of useful information but they can be difficult to understand if you are not familiar with the abbreviations used. The table below shows the most important technical data for some popular transistors, tables in catalogues and reference books will usually show additional information but this is unlikely to be useful unless you are experienced. The quantities shown in the table are explainedbelow.

NPN transistors
Code	Structure	Case style	IC max.	VCE max.	hFE min.	Ptot max.	Category (typical use)	Possible substitutes
BC107	NPN	TO18	100mA	45V	110	300mW	Audio, low power	BC182 BC547
BC108	NPN	TO18	100mA	20V	110	300mW	General purpose, low power	BC108C BC183 BC548
BC108C	NPN	TO18	100mA	20V	420	600mW	General purpose, low power
BC109	NPN	TO18	200mA	20V	200	300mW	Audio (low noise), low power	BC184 BC549
BC182	NPN	TO92C	100mA	50V	100	350mW	General purpose, low power	BC107 BC182L
BC182L	NPN	TO92A	100mA	50V	100	350mW	General purpose, low power	BC107 BC182
BC547B	NPN	TO92C	100mA	45V	200	500mW	Audio, low power	BC107B
BC548B	NPN	TO92C	100mA	30V	220	500mW	General purpose, low power	BC108B
BC549B	NPN	TO92C	100mA	30V	240	625mW	Audio (low noise), low power	BC109
2N3053	NPN	TO39	700mA	40V	50	500mW	General purpose, low power	BFY51
BFY51	NPN	TO39	1A	30V	40	800mW	General purpose, medium power	BC639
BC639	NPN	TO92A	1A	80V	40	800mW	General purpose, medium power	BFY51
TIP29A	NPN	TO220	1A	60V	40	30W	General purpose, high power
TIP31A	NPN	TO220	3A	60V	10	40W	General purpose, high power	TIP31C TIP41A
TIP31C	NPN	TO220	3A	100V	10	40W	General purpose, high power	TIP31A TIP41A
TIP41A	NPN	TO220	6A	60V	15	65W	General purpose, high power
2N3055	NPN	TO3	15A	60V	20	117W	General purpose, high power
Please note: the data in this table was compiled from several sources which are not entirely consistent! Most of the discrepancies are minor, but please consult information from your supplier if you require precise data.
PNP transistors
Code	Structure	Case style	IC max.	VCE max.	hFE min.	Ptot max.	Category (typical use)	Possible substitutes
BC177	PNP	TO18	100mA	45V	125	300mW	Audio, low power	BC477
BC178	PNP	TO18	200mA	25V	120	600mW	General purpose, low power	BC478
BC179	PNP	TO18	200mA	20V	180	600mW	Audio (low noise), low power
BC477	PNP	TO18	150mA	80V	125	360mW	Audio, low power	BC177
BC478	PNP	TO18	150mA	40V	125	360mW	General purpose, low power	BC178
TIP32A	PNP	TO220	3A	60V	25	40W	General purpose, high power	TIP32C
TIP32C	PNP	TO220	3A	100V	10	40W	General purpose, high power	TIP32A
Please note: the data in this table was compiled from several sources which are not entirely consistent! Most of the discrepancies are minor, but please consult information from your supplier if you require precise data.

Structure	This shows the type of transistor, NPN or PNP. The polarities of the two types are different, so if you are looking for a substitute it must be the same type.
Case style	There is a diagram showing the leads for some of the most common case styles in the Connecting section above. This information is also available in suppliers' catalogues.
IC max.	Maximum collector current.
VCE max.	Maximum voltage across the collector-emitter junction. You can ignore this rating in low voltage circuits.
hFE	This is the current gain (strictly the DC current gain). The guaranteed minimum value is given because the actual value varies from transistor to transistor - even for those of the same type! Note that current gain is just a number so it has no units. The gain is often quoted at a particular collector current IC which is usually in the middle of the transistor's range, for example '100@20mA' means the gain is at least 100 at 20mA. Sometimes minimum and maximum values are given. Since the gain is roughly constant for various currents but it varies from transistor to transistor this detail is only really of interest to experts. Why hFE? It is one of a whole series of parameters for transistors, each with their own symbol. There are too many to explain here.
Ptot max.	Maximum total power which can be developed in the transistor, note that aheat sink will be required to achieve the maximum rating. This rating is important for transistors operating as amplifiers, the power is roughly IC × VCE. For transistors operating as switches the maximum collector current (IC max.) is more important.
Category	This shows the typical use for the transistor, it is a good starting point when looking for a substitute. Catalogues may have separate tables for different categories.
Possible substitutes	These are transistors with similar electrical properties which will be suitable substitutes in most circuits. However, they may have a different case style so you will need to take care when placing them on the circuit board.

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Darlington pair

This is two transistors connected together so that the amplified current from the first is amplified further by the second transistor. This gives the Darlington pair a very high current gain such as 10000. Darlington pairs are sold as complete packages containing the two transistors. They have three leads (B, C and E) which are equivalent to the leads of a standard individual transistor.

You can make up your own Darlington pair from two transistors.
For example:

• For TR1 use BC548B with h_FE1 = 220.
• For TR2 use BC639 with h_FE2 = 40.

The overall gain of this pair is hFE1 × hFE2 = 220 × 40 = 8800.

The pair's maximum collector current IC(max) is the same as TR2.

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Heat sinks for transistors

Heat sinks are needed for transistors passing large currents.

Heat sinkPhotograph © Rapid Electronics

Waste heat is produced in transistors due to the current flowing through them. If you find that a transistor is becoming too hot to touch it certainly needs a heat sink! The heat sink helps to dissipate (remove) the heat by transferring it to the surrounding air.

The rate of producing waste heat is called the thermal power, P. Usually the base current I_B is too small to contribute much heat, so the thermal power is determined by the collector current I_C and the voltage V_CE across the transistor:

P = I_C × V_CE   (see diagram below) 

Insulation kit

Heat-conducting pastePhotographs © Rapid Electronics

The heat is not a problem if I_C is small or if the transistor is used as a switch because when 'full on' V_CE is almost zero. However, power transistors used in circuits such as an audio amplifier or a motor speed controller will be partly on most of the time and V_CEmay be about half the supply voltage. These power transistors will almost certainly need a heat sink to prevent them overheating.

Power transistors usually have bolt holes for attaching heat sinks, but clip-on heat sinks are also available. Make sure you use the right type for your transistor. Many transistors have metal cases which are connected to one of their leads so it may be necessary to insulate the heat sink from the transistor. Insulating kits are available with a mica sheet and a plastic sleeve for the bolt. Heat-conducting paste can be used to improve heat flow from the transistor to the heat sink, this is especially important if an insulation kit is used. 

Heat sink ratings

Heat sinks are rated by their thermal resistance (Rth) in °C/W. For example 2°C/W means the heat sink (and therefore the component attached to it) will be 2°C hotter than the surrounding air for every 1W of heat it is dissipating. Note that a lower thermal resistance means a better heat sink.

This is how you work out the required heat sink rating:

1. Work out thermal power to be dissipated, P = I_C × V_CE
   If in doubt use the largest likely value for I_C and assume that V_CEis half the supply voltage.
   For example if a power transistor is passing 1A and connected to a 12V supply, the power P is about 1 × ½ × 12 = 6W.
2. Find the maximum operating temperature (Tmax) for the transistor if you can, otherwise assume Tmax = 100°C.
3. Estimate the maximum ambient (surrounding air) temperature (Tair). If the heat sink is going to be outside the case Tair = 25°C is reasonable, but inside it will be higher (perhaps 40°C) allowing for everything to warm up in operation.
4. Work out the maximum thermal resistance (Rth) for the heat sink using: Rth = (Tmax - Tair) / P
   With the example values given above: Rth = (100-25)/6 = 12.5°C/W.
5. Choose a heat sink with a thermal resistance which is less than the value calculated above (remember lower value means better heat sinking!) for example 5°C/W would be a sensible choice to allow a safety margin. A 5°C/W heat sink dissipating 6W will have a temperature difference of 5 × 6 = 30°C so the transistor temperature will rise to 25 + 30 = 55°C (safely less than the 100°C maximum).
6. All the above assumes the transistor is at the same temperature as the heat sink. This is a reasonable assumption if they are firmly bolted or clipped together. However, you may have to put a mica sheet or similar between them to provide electrical insulation, then the transistor will be hotter than the heat sink and the calculation becomes more difficult. For typical mica sheets you should subtract 2°C/W from the thermal resistance (Rth) value calculated in step 4 above.

If this all seems too complex you can try attaching a moderately large heat sink and hope for the best. Cautiously monitor the transistor temperature with your finger, if it becomes painfully hot switch off immediately and use a larger heat sink!

Why thermal resistance?

The term 'thermal resistance' is used because it is analagous to electrical resistance:

• The temperature difference across the heat sink (between the transistor and air) is like voltage (potential difference) across a resistor.
• The thermal power (rate of heat) flowing through the heat sink from transistor to air is like current flowing through a resistor.
• So R = V/I becomes Rth = (Tmax - Tair)/P
• Just as you need a voltage difference to make current flow, you need a temperature difference to make heat flow.